Xhosa Society

Social Structure

The modern Xhosa are South Africa's second largest ethnic group, with 7 million people.  Their ancestors settled the Eastern Cape region of present-day South Africa with the Bantu southern migration 2000 years ago.  The nation itself dates back to a chief named Tshawe, who is believed to have united the peoples who eventually became the Xhosa (the dates of his reign are unknown).  The nation can be further broken down into chiefdoms, based loosely on familial clans.  The two oldest are the Gcaleka and the Rharhabe, who claim direct descent from Tshawe.  Other major chiefdoms include the Thembu, Bomvana, Mpondo, and Mponomise.  Included among Xhosa speakers are the clans referred to as the Mfengu (those who seek service).  These chiefdoms, including the Bhaca, the Bhele, the Zizi, the Hlubi, and the Qwati were absorbed into the Xhosa nation in the mid 1800s.

Each chiefdom is lead by a paramount Chief, or King.  This line is established by birthright and is passed to the eldest son of the first, or Great Wife.  If the paramount dies prematurely, a regent (usually the chief's brother or trusted advisor) will be selected until the heir is old enough to rule.  The paramount chief rules over several small territories, each consisting of multiple familial clans.  Each territory (and the clans within it) is ruled by a lesser chief, who may be related to the paramount or head of a powerful clan.  Aside from collecting taxes and providing manpower, lesser chiefs have little contact with the paramount.  They are free to resolve disputes and administer their territory as they see fit.

This system was destroyed during the colonial period and re-instituted as part of the Homelands policy of the 1970s.  Unfortunately, the chiefs were chosen by the apartheid government without regard to the legitimacy of their claims.  Lacking the support of the people, these puppets were completely dependent on the South African government for their positions.  As such, they worked with the government in quelling political unrest and silencing their enemies.  The repeal of the apartheid laws in 1991 unleashed a generation of resentment; revenge was swift and brutal.  The new constitution enacted after multiracial elections in 1994 sought to re-install legitimate heirs to their respective chiefdoms.  Today, most chiefs enjoy ceremonial powers only, while a few are directly involved in politics.  

Family Life

With the help of his sons, he is also responsible for building the family home and managing the family's most important asset: its cattle.  The traditional Xhosa economy was based on livestock and cattle was the most valuable commodity.  Even today, wealth is measured by the size of one's herd.  In fact, for traditional Xhosa, marriage is not possible without cattle.  The lobola, or bride price, is paid by the groom to the father of the bride for the right to marry.  As of October, 2001, lobola in the Eastern Cape was 8-10 cattle--at US $1,000 a cattle, marriage can be quite expensive!  This is also a reason why few men today have multiple wives.  Although it is permitted, few can afford it.  In addition to their economic value, cattle were also important in religious and social ceremonies.  On such grand occasions, a cow is sacrificed to honor ancestral spirits.

Like most traditional Bantu societies, the Xhosa placed their women in subservient roles.   They were responsible for most domestic chores as well as tending to crops.  During most of the 20th century, Xhosa men were forced to migrate to mines, farms, and factories for work.  Over time, women took on more and more responsibility until they eventually took over managing the home.  Thus, traditional roles are increasingly rare among the modern Xhosa.  With the fall of apartheid, young Xhosa girls now have access to education and greater employment opportunities.

Social Customs

By the 1994 elections, many Xhosa people had lost their sense of cultural pride.  Early missionaries, in their attempts to "civilize" the Xhosa, dismissed their beliefs as evil or insignificant.  Those who held onto their beliefs were disillusioned by the  Homeland leaders of the 1970s (who were really puppets of the apartheid government).  These leaders attempted to use traditional culture to further their own corrupt regimes.  Culture came to be associated with such abuses.  Now, many Xhosa are rediscovering their cultural traditions.

Corn is a staple in modern Xhosa society, replacing the sorghum of tradition.   Pumpkins, beans, and other vegetables and some meat round out the

Religion and Spirituality

Most Xhosa today are Christians, while a few continue to practice traditional religions.  The rift began in the early 1800s, when the first European missionaries arrived.  Beginning a conversion process that would last until the 1950s, these missionaries established a philosophical divide between "School" Xhosa (raised in missions and Western schools) and "Red" traditionalists (people who painted themselves with red ochre as a commitment to their ancestors).  Ironically, the "School" Xhosa would evolve into the intellectual movement which would eventually lead to the end of apartheid.

Regardless of their inclination, many Xhosa continue to place a high importance on ancestors and ancestral spirits.  During most religious and social ceremonies, some form of acknowledgement is made in honor of the ancestors.  In addition, many Xhosa continue to consult the Sangoma--a spiritual medium between the physical and spiritual world--for relief of physical and spiritual ailments.  Identified with the "gift", Sangoma learn their craft through a lengthy isolation.  They use traditional herbs and roots as well as spiritual incantation to contact the spirit world for guidance.  This guidance can help cure illness, relieve a streak of bad luck, or bless a child.  Sangoma are controversial today--Western science condemns them while local beliefs perpetuate their existence.

Xhosa History