Note: this is a general overview of South African history.  For more information on specific ethnic groups, please refer to the section entitled:  The People of South Africa  

     One such clan was a relatively minor clan previously loyal to Dingiswayo.  The Zulu people lived in relative obscurity under their chief Senzangakona with a population of a few thousand.  Senzangakona pledged loyalty to the Mthethwa and Dingiswayo and served an uneventful reign as chief.  Uneventful, that is, except for the birth of his illegitimate son, Shaka.

His name came from the fact that his mother attempted to hide her pregnancy, attributing it to infection from the itshaka beetle.  In Zulu culture, childbirth outside of wedlock was considered an outrage.  Shaka's mother, Nandi had reason to conceal her condition.  When it was discovered, she became a disgrace to her family and was forced to marry Senzangakona.  Word spread quickly, and she and her son were ostracized by Senzangakona's other wives as well as the general public.

Oral tradition speaks of Shaka facing years of torment as a youth, traveling from clan to clan to live with relatives.  He eventually settle with the Mthethwa, where he distinguished himself in the Mthethwa army.  Dingiswayo was among the first to organize youth into a standing army, or regiments.  Regiments trained and fought together before being disbanded and returning to civilian life.  Oral history speaks of his ferocity and fearlessness in battle.  

Dingiswayo recognized his potential, and soon Shaka was in command of his regiment.  The shrewd Dingiswayo realized that, in Shaka, he had loyal, powerful ally with royal blood.  After Senzangakona's death in 1816, Shaka returned to his Zulu clan to claim his throne with Dingiswayo's support.  Once in power, Shaka acted quickly.  Following the lead of his mentor, he organized fighting regiments among his people.  His major military innovations were the assegai and the "bull-horn tactic".  The bull horn referred to a formation in which regiments would break from the main body of the army.  These "horns" would encircle their opponents, forcing them into hand-to-hand combat.  In battle, the short, powerful assegai made short work of enemies wielding longer throwing spears.  Shaka began defeating lesser clans around him, strengthening his control until 1817.

The Zulu were still a small group, numbering around 3,000 people.  He likely realized he was no match for Zwide, yet, when the opportunity presented itself, he did not hesitate to act.  Some argue that Shaka purposely withheld his forces during Zwide's decisive battle with Dingiswayo.  Whatever the case, he found himself independent of Mthethwa influence, and trapped between Zwide's hordes and the quarreling clans of the former Mthethwa confederation.

His greatest challenge to replace the Mthethwa came from the Qwabe.  They rejected his request for an alliance, insulting the proud Shaka.  Feeling pressure from Zwide to the north, he mustered his armies and defeated the Qwabe in late 1817.  This important victory gave Shaka a mythical quality in the area.  He used his influence to secure alliances with many of the former clans of the Mthethwa confederation.  By 1818, Shaka had re-established the Mthethwa kingdom with his own Zulu people in charge.  

Then, the inevitable occurred: Zwide struck.  In 1818, Shaka and Zwide met first at  Gqokli hill then one year later at the Mhlatuze river.  In the second battle, Zwide was defeated and his villages burned.  He fled with his people north into Mozambique.  He would never again challenge Shaka in South Africa.  

This major event continued the Mfecane which had started just a few years earlier.  Zwide's defeated allies fled north and west, establishing the Ndebele, Shangane, and Angoni peoples.  As they settled, they displaced others peoples.  Tens of thousands would die and even more would be displaced as drought and famine compounded the situation.  The resulting domino effect would change the balance of power in the modern day countries of South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Tanzania Malawi, and Zambia.

By 1824, Shaka had defeated or absorbed all the clans in the region.  Like his predecessor, he allowed his constituents limited autonomy in exchange for tribute and soldiers.  Those who refused to submit were killed or fled the area (aggravating the mfecane).  He controlled the region east of the Drakensberg mountains, north to modern Mozambique and south to the city of Durban, South Africa.  He was, without question, the most powerful ruler in the area, controlling both traditional trade with the Portuguese and now the growing market with the British.   

Shaka's military tactics brought him control of eastern South Africa.  His power came at a price, however, as he had a brutal reign as Zulu King.  Executions were rampant.  Warriors who lost their spears or suffered back wounds in combat were executed.  This started in the campaign against Zwide and continued into Shaka's reign.  Since the Zulu fought hand-to-hand, so the logic went, the only way to lose a spear was to surrender it or drop it in fear.  Either case demonstrated cowardice in battle and was cause for death.  Similarly, the only way to suffer a back injury was to run from the battle--once again a sign of cowardice.  Among the common people, execution came without warning.  One account tells of a man being executed as a demonstration of power for European guests.  Nevertheless, his people revered him as in mythological proportions.

 Critics today still debate his portrayal in history.  The Zulu consider to honor him as their greatest king to this day.  Many westerners consider him a madman.  Anthropologists have attempted to analyze his upbringing, pointing to his turbulent childhood as a cause of his sadistic behavior.  Others simply point to him as a product of time.  With the intensity of the competition for such limited resources, only an iron fist could bring discipline to the region.  Whatever the case, he remains one of the most influential people (and icons) in all of Africa. 

In 1827, Shaka's beloved mother Nandi died.  In the mayhem that followed, as many as 7,000 people were executed for failing to show proper remorse.  He ordered that the grieving period continue for one year during which no farming was permitted.  This, coupled with continued drought meant starvation for his people.  In a panic, he sent his army on one ill-fated campaign after another in search of grain, livestock, and supplies for his people.  His fatigued army suffered defeat after defeat as his soldiers battled illness and exhaustion along with the enemy.  Finally, in 1828, his half-brothers Dingane and Mhlangane assassinated him, placing Dingane on the throne.  Dingane quickly solidified his power by honoring the defeated army, which was returning from yet another defeat.  Rather than suffer severe punishment at the hands of Shaka, they were decorated and granted furlough by Dingane.  He soon had their support, although neither he, nor any other Zulu king would enjoy the success and popularity of Shaka.

The Zulu kings immediately following Shaka attempted to repeat his military successes but often failed.  This is due, in part, to the fact that the mfecane was now over.  Shaka's power had been so complete that there were none left in the area to challenge Zulu dominance.  Subsequent campaigns required them to cross the Drakensberg Mountains or head far to the north.  By the time the Zulu army (or impi) reached its target, it often suffered from starvation and fatique.  Nevertheless, the  Zulu were still, without question, the most dominant force in eastern South Africa.

For the time being...  

Next Up: Part IV, Conquest