Please select one of the five chapters in the history of Mali

Most historians believe that the earliest humans migrated into Mali as early as 6000 BC.  Several distinct groups evolved as these early humans migrated inland from the west African coast.  These Black African groups were joined by Arab groups from northern Africa who migrated south and east.  By 500 BC, the diverse groups of people inhabiting Mali were growing crops, raising livestock and forging iron tools.  

By 100 BC six major language groups had developed in west Africa: the West Atlantic, Kwa, Mande, Voltaic, Zande, and Bantu.  In addition, population growth resulted in clan-based settlement of the coastal and interior regions of west Africa.  These diverse clans grew to kingdoms, kingdoms grew into city-states, and the first forms of trade--later to be a key to survival--developed.  The Bantu speakers eventually left the area, migrating south, but many of the others remained, with the Mande and Voltaic speakers occupying much of what is present day Mali.

By 1000 AD, Mali was shared by several groups.  Black Africans migrating north and east from the coast included: Soninke, Bambara, and Mande.  The Arabic African groups migrating south and west included: Songhay, Tuareg, and Hausa.  These groups maintained complex societies and traded with each other as well as merchants from north Africa, Egypt and the Middle East.

     According to the oral history of the Soninke people, a ruler named Dinga defeated a powerful goblin leader, marrying its three daughters.  He established the influential city of Wagadu, where he enjoyed a long and prosperous reign as the first ruler of the Empire of Ghana.
    After his death, his two sons, Khine and Dyabe fought for control of the empire.  At the point of victory, Dyabe's forces were turned back by Khine's army.  Facing a humiliating defeat, Dyabe made an oath with a large seven-headed serpent god named Bida.  In exchange for victory, Dyabe promised to sacrifice a virgin to the snake once a year.  Dyabe won and fulfilled his promise to Bida until his death.  His successors followed suit for many years.  
    This continued until a woman named Sia was chosen to be sacrificed.  A young warrior named Amadou loved Sia, and asked the royal priest how to save his beloved.  The priest told him the only way to save the girl was to slay Bida by cutting off each of his seven heads.  Undaunted by the enormity of the task, Amadou hid at the sacrifice area.  When Bida came up for his sacrifice, Amadou leapt out, attacked and slew the powerful snake god.  As his final head fell to the ground, Bida cursed Ghana for seven years, seven months, and seven days of drought and pestilence.  As his curse unfolded, Ghana fell into decline and was overrun by invaders.

    As with most oral traditions, this one is combination of fact, fiction and metaphor.  Archaeologists link Ghana with the Berbers as early as 300 AD.  It is believed that the two groups competed for limited resources through trade and/or armed conflict.  One interpretation of the oral history is that Dinga defeated a powerful Berber leader and married his daughters.  Such a union would unite Dinga with the Berber clan and form a formidable union.  In addition, Bida may be a metaphor for such an influential clan.  Dyabe may have offered slaves, gold or even daughters/sons for marriage in exchange for the support of the "Bida" clan.  When this alliance was broken, the kingdom fell. 

    This is, of course, pure speculation.  What is known is that trade built the early empires.  North African coins dating from 300 AD were found in the ruins of the former Empire of Ghana, likely delivered by the Berber caravans which crisscrossed this part of the continent.  The most important trade commodities were salt and gold.  While gold was valued in Ghana, it was relatively plentiful and considered an adornment only; it had no practical value as a tool or weapon.  Salt, on the other hand was very rare and vital to life; it preserves food and helps you retain liquids in a hot, dry environment.  The main source in west Africa was Taghaza, far to the north of the empire.
    The Berbers brought salt into Ghana in exchange for gold, which was then distributed throughout northern and western Africa.  The well-known  paths they traveled for the dangerous 40 day trek through the desert developed into the first trade routes.   Over time, other products, such as fabrics, grains and oils, would be traded as well.  Still, salt was king.  It was so important to survival that it would be traded in equal measure for gold.
    The system of trade was known as "dumb bartering".  Merchants would go to a specified location, announcing their arrival by drum beat.  They would leave their products and go away.  The gold minors would come some time later and leave an amount of gold.  The merchants would return and take the gold or leave a counter-offer.  While this may sound like it operated on the "honor system", the kings soldiers rigorously protected and enforced accepted practices and the system became very efficient.

    As word of the gold-rich empire reached the lands to the north and east, merchants and traders poured into the kingdom.  The birth of Islam in 610 AD attracted even more people to Ghana in search of both gold and converts.  Those returning to Arab strongholds told stories of this fascinating nation.  Society was separated into several different classes: the king and royal family; religious leaders; smiths/miners; merchants; soldiers; griots (or storytellers); and slaves.  The smiths and miners enjoyed high status because of their work.  Metallurgy was in its early stages in the region, and those who could mine and works metals were assumed to have supernatural powers.  These people took great pride in their skills and went through great lengths to protect their secrets; often with their lives.
    While the king enjoyed total control of his kingdom, day-to-day affairs were handled by local chiefdoms who paid tribute to the king.  They were granted religious autonomy but were subject to the socio-political mores of the ruling Soninke clan.  These chiefdoms also contributed soldiers to the kings army, which protected both foreign merchants and citizens from crime.  This was an important precedent which would characterize the region over the next 1000 years; Arab merchants frequently wrote of the safety of the trade routes to the west African empires. 
    The empire continued to dominate trade in west Africa until the 11th century.  In 1050, Abdulla ibn Yasin, a Muslim teacher, led a powerful Islamic group called the Almoravids.  These hardliners were insulted that Ghana would not convert to islam and staged a series of raids against the empire.

    Weakened by the raids, Ghana could no longer dominate its tributary chiefdoms.  The Susu were the first of many groups to split from the old empire.  As the Susu became more powerful, they began taking trade away from the empire of Ghana.  More and more tributaries renounced their allegiance to the empire, submitting themselves to Susu rule.  By 1100 AD the empire was in ruins and the Soninke found themselves at the mercy of their neighbors.

Please select one of the five chapters in this section

The Ancient Empires	The Modern Era
Chapter 1: Ghana Chapter 2: Mali Chapter 3: Songhay	Chapter 4: Colonial Period Chapter 5: Mali Today